India's coal production is expected to reach 1.5 billion tons by 2030.

The country derives a quarter of its gross domestic product and 90% of exports from mining.

Junior producers have been particularly hard hit.

Mansfield Consulting examined 14 potential critical mineral mines and two mine extensions, and found the long-term economic impact of operations over several decades could be nearly C$800 billion ($599bn).

Commodities as a whole had a challenging year, with the group finishing down 12.55% due to a number of factors.

Demand for raw materials is at record levels, inventories are low, and spare production capacity is largely “exhausted,” the veteran analyst said.

The overall picture for the seaborne thermal coal market in Asia is that supply has risen by enough to offset strong demand by China.

Some 200 million Indonesians will vote for a new leader next month.